- Moral Philosophy - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.htm
Introduction to ethics, with links to other articles at the IEP.
- Positivism, Logical - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/logpos.htm
Schlick, Carnap, Reichenbach, and others made up the Austrian school of philosophy in the 1920s, which has been influential in analysis of scientific thought.
- Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/j/jacobi.htm
18th century German philosopher, famous for effective criticism of Kant.
- Just War Theory - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/j/justwar.htm
Some of those who have attempted to justify war include Aquinas, Grotius, and Pufendorf.
- Positivism, Legal - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/legalpos.htm
Theory that law is manufactured according to certain social conventions.
- Leucippus - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/leucippu.htm
5th century BCE founder of atomism.
- Locke, John - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/locke.htm
Article on the life and work of the influential philosopher.
- Lombard, Peter - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lombard.htm
French scholastic theologian of the 12th century, influenced by Abelard.
- Lotze, Rudolf Hermann - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lotze.htm
19th century German philosopher who criticised the pantheism of Hegel.
- Lucretius - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lucretiu.htm
Roman poet and advocate of Epicurean philosophy.
- Menippus - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/menippus.htm
Third century BCE Greek philosopher and satirist.
- Mill, John Stuart - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/milljs.htm
19th leader and prophet of utilitarianism, heir to the Hume-Bentham line, and influential force in modern political theory. Author of On Liberty (1859), and Utilitarianism (1863).
- Moral Luck - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/moralluc.htm
Andrew Latus, St. Francis Xavier University, summarizes the discussion between Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams on the question: Can luck ever make a moral difference?
- Natural Law - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/n/natlaw.htm
Standards that govern human behavior objectively derived from the nature of human beings.
- Natural Theology - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/n/nattheol.htm
Used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to describe knowledge of God drawn from nature.
- Neoplatonism - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/n/neoplato.htm
The revival of Greek philosophy in 3rd century BCE, led by Plotinus and his disciple, Porphyry. Influenced by both Pythagoras and Plato.
- Ockham, William of - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/o/ockham.htm
Detailed biography of the 14th century Franciscan.
- Origen - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/o/origen.htm
Father of the early Church, born around 182.
- Solipsism - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/solipsis.htm
The doctrine of the solipsist is that existence means my existence and that of my mental states.
- Paley, William - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/paley.htm
18th century British theologian.
- Parmenides - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/parmenid.htm
Greek philosopher and poet.
- Peripatetics - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/peripati.htm
Brief history of the Peripatetic doctrines.
- Plotinus - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/plotinus.htm
3rd century CE founder of Neo-Platonism.
- Poincaré, Jules Henri - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/poincare.htm
19th century French philosopher of science.
- Prodicus - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/prodicus.htm
5th century BCE sophist, possibly a mentor of Socrates
- Protagoras - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/protagor.htm
Early Greek sophist.
- Pyrrho - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/pyrrho.htm
4th century BCE founder of the Greek school of skepticism.
- Pythagoras - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/pythagor.htm
The 6th century BCE philosopher.
- Reichenbach, Hans - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/reichenb.htm
Leading German philosopher of science, and logical positivist.
- Renaissance - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/renaiss.htm
Brief article on the transition between middle ages and modernity.
- Roman Philosophy - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/romanphi.htm
Short introduction to Roman philosophy from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Shpet, Gustav - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/shpet.htm
Leading proponent of Russian transcendental phenomenology.
- Skepticism, Ancient Greek - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepanci.htm
A description of skepticism in Ancient Greece, led by Pyrrho.
- Skepticism, Contemporary - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm
Introduction to the current discussion of skepticism.
- Solovyov, Vladimir - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/solovyov.htm
19th century Russian philosopher.
- Sophists - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/sophists.htm
Teachers of philosophy in Ancient Greece, including Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus and Hippias.
- Spinoza, Benedict - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/spinoza.htm
17th century pantheist, critic of Descartes.
- Stephen, Leslie - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/stephen.htm
19th century British academic.
- Stilpo - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/stilpo.htm
4th century BCE member of the Megarean school.
- Stoicism - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/stoicism.htm
Description of the system of ethics, popular in Ancient Greece, which has physics as its foundation.
- Symposium - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/symposiu.htm
Drinking-parties in Ancient Greece where the guests reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of flowers.
- Synderesis - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/synderes.htm
Scholastic philosophy describes this as the principle in moral consciousness which directs an agent to good.
- Thales - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/thales.htm
Detailed biographical essay on the Ancient Greek philosopher.
- Theophrastus - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/theophra.htm
Philosopher of the Peripatetic school, successor to Aristotle at the Lyceum.
- Time - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/time.htm
Long article about questions of time discussed throughout the history of philosophy.
- Timon - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/timon.htm
3rd century BCE disciple of Pyrrho.
- Vienna Circle - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/v/viennaci.htm
Organised the development of logical postivism in the 1920s. Included Carnap, Feigl, Frank, Gödel, Hahn, Kraft, Neurath, Waismann. Popper and Wittgenstein also had association with the Vienna Circle.
- Virtue Theory - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/v/virtue.htm
View that morality is the development of or virtues.
- Voluntarism - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/v/voluntar.htm
Theory that God or the ultimate nature of reality is conceived as some form of will.
- Warburton, William - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/w/warburto.htm
18th century Church of England bishop, and critic of the Deists.
- Wittgenstein, Ludwig - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/w/wittgens.htm
Detailed essay on the life and work of the 20th century philosopher.
- Xenophanes - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/x/x-phanes.htm
Eleatic school, powerful 6th century BCE critic of polytheism.
- Xenophon - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/x/xenophon.htm
Pupil of Socrates, who contributed to the record of his life.
- Zeno of Elea - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/z/zenoelea.htm
5th century BCE Eleatic philosopher.
- Russell's Paradox - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/par-russ.htm
Examines self-referential linguistics used to describe properties and sets.
- Truth - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/truth.htm
Philosophical theories on the nature of truth, by Bradley Dowden and Norman Swartz.
- Plato - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/plato.htm
Biography and description of the philosophy of Plato.
- Rights, Human - http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hum-rts.htm
A treatment of the origins and development of the theory of human rights, with philosophical analysis, justifications, and criticisms.
- Academy - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/academy.htm
Description of the philosophical institution founded by Plato, which advocated skepticism in succeeding generations.
- Active Powers - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/activepo.htm
The capacities of impulse and desire which lead to or determine human action, as described by 18th and 19th century Scottish common sense philosophy.
- Aenesidemus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aeneside.htm
Biography of the 1st century philosopher who defended the ten tropes of skepticism.
- Anaxagoras - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/anaxagor.htm
Greek philosopher born about 500 BCE, responsible for giving philosophy a home at Athens and the first philosopher to introduce a spiritual principle which gives matter life and form.
- Anaxarchus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/anaxarch.htm
4th century BCE philosopher of Abdera, from the school of Democritus.
- Anaximander - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/anaximan.htm
Greek philosopher of Miletus, born 611 BCE who thought it unnecessary to fix upon air, water, or fire as the original and primary form of body.
- Anaximenes - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/anaximen.htm
5th century BCE Greek philosopher of Miletus who regarded 'air' as the primary form of body.
- Animals and Ethics - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/anim-eth.htm
Consideration of moral status of non-human animals.
- Anselm - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/anselm.htm
11th century English prelate who developed views of atonement and satisfaction which are still held by orthodox theologians.
- Antisthenes - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/antisthe.htm
Athenian philosopher and founder of the Cynic sect who was born around 440 BCE.
- Aquinas, Thomas - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aquinas.htm
The life and work of the major figure in scholastic philosophy.
- Aristippus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristip.htm
Description of the life and teachings of the philosopher Aristippus, founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy.
- Aristotle - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristotl.htm
The life and work of the 4th century BCE Greek philosopher.
- Augustine - http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/augustin.htm
Extensive article on the life and work of the 4th century ecclesiastical author.
- Bacon, Francis - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/bacon.htm
16th century philosopher and politician.
- Bakhtin Circle - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/bakhtin.htm
School of Russian thought centered on the work of Bakhtin which focused on questions of signification in artistic creation.
- Beccaria, Cesare - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/beccaria.htm
18th century aristocrat whose work 'On Crimes and Punishments (1764)' inspired reform in the Italian criminal justice system.
- Behaviorism - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/behavior.htm
Theory in philosophy of mind which maintains that talk of mental events should be translated into talk about observable behavior.
- Bentham, Jeremy - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/bentham.htm
Extensive article on the 18th century 'founder' of utilitarianism.
- Berkeley, George - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/berkeley.htm
Influential 18th century Irish philosopher.
- Berlin Circle - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/berlinci.htm
Group of academics who gathered round Hans Reichenbach in late 1920s and later joined up with the Vienna Circle.
- Butler, Joseph - http://www.iep.utm.edu/b/butler.htm
18th century icon of a highly intellectualized theology.
- Caird, Edward - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/caird.htm
Nineteenth century Scottish philosopher who was one of the key figures of the idealist movement that dominated British philosophy from 1870 until the mid 1920s.
- Social Contract Theory - http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/soc-cont.htm
View that morality is based on social agreements that serve the interests of those who make the agreement.
- Chrysippus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/chrysipp.htm
Prolific stoic of Soli, and disciple of Cleanthes.
- Chinese Room Argument - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/chineser.htm
John Searle's thought experiment is one of the best known counters to claims of artificial intelligence.
- Carnap, Rudolf - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/carnap.htm
Extensive article about his life and work, by Mauro Murzi.
- Capital Punishment - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/capitalp.htm
The issue of capital punishment involves determining whether the execution of criminals is ever justified.
- Davidson, Donald - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/davidson.htm
Introduction to one of the most significant philosophers concerned with philosophy of mind and action of the 20th/21st century.
- Deism, English - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismeng.htm
Explores the deism of Hobbes, Locke, Tindal, and the influence of Hume.
- Damon - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/damon.htm
5th century BCE Pythagorean philosopher of Syracuse.
- Cumberland, Richard - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cumberla.htm
17th century critic of Hobbes and the neo-Platonists.
- Cudworth, Ralph - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cudwor.htm
17th century 'Cambridge Platonist' who fought for preservation of religious ideals, including divine illumination.
- Cleanthes - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cleanthe.htm
Stoic philosopher of Assus in Lydia, disciple of Zeno of Citium.
- Cicero, Marcus Tullius - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cicero.htm
1st century BCE Roman orator and philosopher of the New Academy.
- Cyrenaics - http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cyren.htm
Description of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, which flourished from the 5th-3rd centuries BCE. The Cyrenaics were skeptics and hedonists.
- Deism, French - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismfre.htm
The deism of Voltaire and Rousseau.
- Democritus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/democrit.htm
4th century BCE philosopher of Abdera who expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus.
- Demonax - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/demonax.htm
Philosopher of the second century CE. who tried to revive the philosophy of the Cynic School.
- Descartes, René - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/descarte.htm
Early modern philosopher who rejected religious authority in the quest for scientific and philosophical knowledge.
- Dewey, John - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/dewey.htm
Leading light of the 20th century American school of thought known as pragmatism.
- Diderot, Denis - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/diderot.htm
The most prominent of the French Encyclopedists and one of the leaders of the Enlightenment.
- Diogenes Laertius - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/dioglaer.htm
3rd century biographer of ancient Greek philosophers.
- Diogenes of Apollonia - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/diogapol.htm
Pupil of Anaximenes and contemporary of Anaxagoras in the 6th cn. BCE.
- Diogenes of Sinope - http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/diogsino.htm
4th cn. BCE cynic philosopher of Sinope.
- Eckhart, Meister - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/eckhart.htm
13th century Dominican mystic who was almost forgotten until Franz von Baader revived his memory in the nineteenth century.
- Eclecticism - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/eclectic.htm
Group of ancient philosophers who sought to reach by selection the highest degree of probability in the search for truth.
- Egoism, Psychological and Ethical - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/egoism.htm
Maintains that the individual self is the motivating moral force and the end of moral action.
- Emanation - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/emanatio.htm
The theory that all derived or secondary things flow from the primary.
- Empedocles - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/empedocl.htm
5th century BCE philosopher who combined medical study with Orphic mysticism.
- Epictetus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/epictetu.htm
Eminent Stoic philosopher, born as a slave at Hieropolis in Phyrgia in 55 CE.
- Epicurus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/epicur.htm
4th century BCE materialist, empiricist, and hedonist. One of the major philosophers of the Hellenistic period.
- Euclides - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/euclides.htm
4th century BCE native of Megara, and founder of the Megarian or Eristic sect.
- Evolution - http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evolutio.htm
Introduces evolution through the ages, from the ancient Greeks, through Leibniz and Descartes to Darwin and Spencer.
- Fichte, Immanuel Hermann - http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/fichteih.htm
Aimed to secure a philosophical basis for the personality of God.
- Fichte, Johann Gottlieb - http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/fichtejg.htm
One of the major figures in German philosophy in the period between Kant and Hegel.
- Freud, Sigmund - http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/freud.htm
Lenghty article on the father of psychoanalysis who is generally recognised as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century.
- German Idealism - http://www.iep.utm.edu/g/germidea.htm
The German reaction to empiricism, including related theories of Kant, Fichte, Hegel and others.
- God, Western Concepts of - http://www.iep.utm.edu/g/god-west.htm
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on God from Socrates to Nietzsche.
- Gorgias - http://www.iep.utm.edu/g/gorgias.htm
Greek sophist and rhetorician, known as "the Nihilist," born in 483 BCE.
- Greek Philosophy - http://www.iep.utm.edu/g/greekphi.htm
The philosophical currents of Ancient Greek philosophy are introduced, from the Presocratic philosophers through to Proclus.
- Hamilton, William - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/hamilton.htm
19th century exponent of the Scottish common-sense philosophy.
- Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard Von - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/hartmann.htm
19th century German philosopher who attempted to combine the idea of Hegel with the will of Schopenhauer in 'spiritual monism.'
- Hegelians, St. Louis - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/hstlouis.htm
19th century group of amateur American philosophers founded and led by William Torrey Harris.
- Helvetius, Claude Adrien - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/helvetiu.htm
One of the 18th century Encyclopedists who held the skeptical and materialistic views common to that school of philosophy.
- Hempel, Carl Gustav - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/hempel.htm
A leading member of logical positivism, the German philosopher died in 1997.
- Heraclitus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/heraclit.htm
5th century BCE. Presocratic Greek philosopher.
- Herbert of Cherbury, Edward - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/herbert.htm
17th century historian, poet (brother of George), and philosopher. Sought to determine the nature and standard of truth, and conditions of knowledge. Precursor of the philosophy of Common Sense.
- Hippias - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/hippias.htm
Hippias was a sophist, a contemporary of Socrates, and an enthusiast for universality.
- Hobbes, Thomas - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/hobmoral.htm
17th century British philosopher. Author of Leviathan (1651).
- Hodgson, Shadworth - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/hodgson.htm
Follower of Kant, founder of the Aristotelian Society.
- Humanism - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/humanism.htm
Brief article on Erasmus and the Italian humanist movement.
- Hume, David - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/humelife.htm
Enormously influential 18th century Scottish philosopher. Author of Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740).
- Husserl, Edmund - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/husserl.htm
Leader of the German phenomenological movement.
- Huxley, Thomas Henry - http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/huxley.htm
19th century zoologist and advocate of Darwinism.
- Identity Theory - http://www.iep.utm.edu/i/identity.htm
Form of monistic materialism which maintains that mental states and brain activities are identical.
- Interventionism - http://www.iep.utm.edu/i/interven.htm
Examines the nature and justifications of interfering with another polity or choices made by individuals.
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